The Calculus of Human Behavior: Are We Always Driven by Interests?

To address this question, we must first define the complex concept of "interests". While classical economic and philosophical frameworks—such as rational choice theory—often define "interests" from a material and rational perspective, this article advocates for a broader definition. Here, "interests" refer not merely to material wealth, but to a collection of subjective benefits encompassing multiple dimensions: short-term and long-term, material and emotional, and partial and holistic. The short-term versus long-term dimension involves measuring and comparing things within a temporal-spatial framework; the material versus emotional dimension pertains to assessing tangible and abstract elements based on their perceptibility; and the partial versus holistic dimension involves selective focus and expansion from a macroscopic perspective.
However, the term "calculus" often implies a conscious, rational, and largely material-based trade-off—creating tension with the unconscious emotional drives and abstract long-term rewards that "interests" inherently encompass. This article aims to argue that regardless of whether such "calculus" is explicit or implicit, its core driving force remains interests in the broad sense.

Part 1: Individual Intrinsic Drivers (Microcosmic Level)
Biological Instincts
From an evolutionary perspective, the natural law of survival of the fittest eliminated ape-like creatures that did not prioritize survival interests. Meanwhile, pursuing interests under stress can stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline, inducing a sense of excitement. Upon achieving these interests, dopamine released by specific neurons in the brain provides humans with anticipated rewards, prompting them to repeat the behavior.
Psychological Mechanisms
Furthermore, the repeated behavior of pursuing interests bears certain similarities to the psychological phenomenon of behavioral priming. This behavioral pattern is reinforced by the priming effect: initial success establishes neural pathways, and thereafter, the brain tends to rely on past successful experiences (a phenomenon known as path dependence) to maximize efficiency with minimal psychological resistance. Behavioral priming provides the initial conditions for path dependence, while path dependence consolidates and reinforces behavioral priming—together, they form a psychological mechanism that reduces decision-making costs.
To safeguard internal emotional interests, the brain also employs a psychological mechanism called cognitive dissonance. Under the influence of socially shaped values, humans tend to exhibit anthropocentrism and cognitive dissonance. For instance, compassion toward cats and dogs—derived from their instrumental value as pets—becomes normalized and "correct" under mainstream social ideologies. In contrast, the suffering of poultry such as chickens and ducks (raised for food) is often overlooked: they are viewed solely as instrumental entities for nutrient acquisition, their value assigned only in relation to human survival. Resolving cognitive dissonance itself constitutes a form of calculus aimed at maintaining internal psychological balance—an important emotional interest. This phenomenon typically arises from the interplay of sociocultural shaping and the brain’s mechanisms, such as cognitive adjustment and selective inattention.

Part 2: Social Norms and Construction (Macrocosmic Level)
Social Evolution
Historically, productive forces drive the emergence of new social classes. After creating substantial material value, these new classes demand abstract spiritual fulfillment—for example, the emerging bourgeoisie’s pursuit of power and political status. When the interests of existing old classes are impaired by means such as revolutions led by new classes, the old classes weigh trade-offs and accept some of the new classes’ demands to coexist, thereby safeguarding their survival interests and maximizing overall interests. Driven by the goal of maximizing their own interests, new classes negotiate with old classes to achieve coexistence. Fundamentally, the tension between revolution and reform reflects the interplay and negotiation of interests between new (productivity-spawned) and old classes, forming a dynamic Nash equilibrium game. The Glorious Revolution was not merely a political compromise, but a Nash equilibrium point found by old and new classes after repeated games: in that era, no party could gain additional benefits by unilaterally changing its strategy. This equilibrium itself represents a stable state where conflicting parties achieve relative interest maximization under specific conditions.
Lessons from History
In modern society, short-term and long-term interests are often considered in tandem. The shift from a sole focus on short-term interests to the widespread adoption of an integrated short- and long-term framework essentially reflects a survival philosophy derived from human practice: interests must be evaluated within a temporal-spatial context to maximize overall interests. The Industrial Revolution pursued growth at the expense of the environment, ultimately requiring far higher environmental governance costs and impairing overall interests. Such lessons have led humans to recognize that short-term interests may erode long-term ones—and that interests must be examined through a temporal-spatial lens to pursue sustainable overall interest maximization.
Ethical Dilemmas
In contemporary society, morality—as a social consensus—has a dual nature: it serves as a necessary means to maintain social cohesion and often as a tool for power structures to discipline individuals. This aligns with the sociological theory of the social contract, whereby individuals surrender part of their freedom in exchange for the collective’s provision of security and belonging. The collective can provide individuals with emotional interests (which they need) but may also inhibit individual originality and uniqueness to some extent. Collectives may exclude individuals whose values contradict collective norms to safeguard collective spiritual interests and maintain the authority of their value systems. Under such implicit normative constraints, individuals either adjust their beliefs (transforming themselves to some degree) to reintegrate into the collective, or distance themselves from it—losing the emotional benefit of collective identity. (Collective identity is essentially an emotional affiliation inherited from ancestors to maintain basic survival interests. In some contexts, it may conflict with modern society’s emphasis on personal development and originality, even becoming an obstacle.)
Overall, individuals first internalize basic social values under environmental influence to gain emotional value and integrate into society. Later, through educational discipline and life experience, they internalize their own values and acquire further emotional interests. Educational discipline is particularly crucial here: one of its most valuable functions is maintaining social stability, safeguarding the survival interests of all, and cultivating a unified set of basic values. This enables social groups to internalize and discipline themselves, forming emotional interests rooted in social consensus. However, the shaping and internalization of values also raise philosophical questions: Does this social needs-based value shaping undermine individual autonomy and freedom? Do individuals who reject discipline and are labeled "outsiders" enjoy the fundamental right to equal treatment?
In moral terms, humans gain emotional benefits such as social recognition by engaging in acts deemed meaningful by society—volunteers are a prime example. Morality also disciplines individuals and triggers the brain’s release of rewarding substances like dopamine, or more precisely, it has multiple attributes. Even individuals who appear to help selflessly or without expectation still receive dopamine rewards from the brain, gaining corresponding emotional benefits (whether intentionally or not).

Part 3: The Evolution of the Era
Shifts in Modern Society
When material survival interests are largely satisfied, higher-level needs in Maslow’s hierarchy—such as "emotional belonging" and "self-actualization," which constitute emotional interests—become new, more important objects of "calculus". When people purchase experiences, they are essentially paying for memories, a sense of meaning, and social capital. In contemporary society, where material needs are met, spiritual needs have become a top priority. Data from the World Values Survey indicates that generations raised in the post-WWII era of economic prosperity and peace have exhibited a significant shift toward post-materialist values. Humans are increasingly willing to pay for emotional value: a survey of U.S. millennials found that over 78% of respondents chose to spend money on "an ideal experience" rather than "an ideal item". Emotional interests are gaining growing attention among young people—for example, the prevalence of "frenzied literature" and discussions of "emotional exhaustion" in China essentially represents the external release of negative emotions, thereby reconstructing one’s emotional core.

Part 4: A Response to Whether Behavior Is Oriented Toward Objective Interests
Finally, let us return to the title’s question: Are humans inherently creatures that calculate based on interests? Objectively, events do generate certain benefits, and these benefits accrue regardless of an individual’s intentions. Humans are indeed creatures consistently driven by interests—through both conscious rational calculations and unconscious intuitive/emotional responses shaped by evolution and social discipline.
Thus, the key to answering this question lies in defining "calculus". If "calculus" refers to cold, rational gameplay, the answer is negative. However, if it is understood as an underlying, often unconscious driving system—shaped by evolution, reinforced by neurochemical reward mechanisms, and adjusted by social norms—then the answer is nearly affirmative. Our behaviors may not always be meticulously calculated, but their underlying logic is invariably tied to the drive of broad-sense interests, and they objectively lead to the realization of certain benefits.